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Hamd-e-Bari Ta'ala and Naat-e-Rasool (sallalahoalaihiwassallam)
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Chronology of Islam
From
6th Century (500-599) C.E.
to
20th Century (1900-1992) C.E.
World of Islam
The Spread of IslamFrom the oasis cities of
Makkah and Madinah in the Arabian desert, the message of Islam went forth
with electrifying speed. Within half a century of the Prophet's death, Islam
had spread to three continents. Islam is not, as some imagine in the West, a
religion of the sword nor did it spread primarily by means of war. It was
only within Arabia, where a crude form of idolatry was rampant, that Islam
was propagated by warring against those tribes which did not accept the
message of God--whereas Christians and Jews were not forced to convert.
Outside of Arabia also the vast lands conquered by the Arab armies in a short
period became Muslim not by force of the sword but by the appeal of the new
religion. It was faith in One God and emphasis upon His Mercy that brought
vast numbers of people into the fold of Islam. The new religion did not
coerce people to convert. Many continued to remain Jews and Christians and to
this day important communities of the followers of these faiths are found in
Muslim lands.
Moreover, the spread of Islam was not limited to its miraculous early
expansion outside of Arabia. During later centuries the Turks embraced Islam
peacefully as did a large number of the people of the Indian subcontinent and
the Malay-speaking world. In Africa also, Islam has spread during the past
two centuries even under the mighty power of European colonial rulers. Today
Islam continues to grow not only in Africa but also in Europe and America
where Muslims now comprise a notable minority.
General Characteristics of IslamIslam was
destined to become a world religion and to create a civilization which
stretched from one end of the globe to the other. Already during the early
Muslim caliphates, first the Arabs, then the Persians and later the Turks set
about to create classical Islamic civilization. Later, in the 13th century,
both Africa and India became great centers of Islamic civilization and soon
thereafter Muslim kingdoms were established in the Malay-Indonesian world
while Chinese Muslims flourished throughout China.
Global ReligionIslam is a religion for all
people from whatever race or background they might be. That is why Islamic
civilization is based on a unity which stands completely against any racial
or ethnic discrimination. Such major racial and ethnic groups as the Arabs,
Persians, Turks, Africans, Indians, Chinese and Malays in addition to
numerous smaller units embraced Islam and contributed to the building of
Islamic civilization. Moreover, Islam was not opposed to learning from the
earlier civilizations and incorporating their science, learning, and culture
into its own world view, as long as they did not oppose the principles of
Islam. Each ethnic and racial group which embraced Islam made its
contribution to the one Islamic civilization to which everyone belonged. The
sense of brotherhood and sisterhood was so much emphasized that it overcame
all local attachments to a particular tribe, race, or language--all of which
became subservient to the universal brotherhood and sisterhood of Islam.
The global civilization thus created by Islam permitted people of diverse
ethnic backgrounds to work together in cultivating various arts and sciences.
Although the civilization was profoundly Islamic, even non-Muslim "people of
the book" participated in the intellectual activity whose fruits belonged to
everyone. The scientific climate was reminiscent of the present situation in
America where scientists and men and women of learning from all over the
world are active in the advancement of knowledge which belongs to everyone.
The global civilization created by Islam also succeeded in activating the
mind and thought of the people who entered its fold. As a result of Islam,
the nomadic Arabs became torch-bearers of science and learning. The Persians
who had created a great civilization before the rise of Islam nevertheless
produced much more science and learning in the Islamic period than before.
The same can be said of the Turks and other peoples who embraced Islam. The
religion of Islam was itself responsible not only for the creation of a world
civilization in which people of many different ethnic backgrounds
participated, but it played a central role in developing intellectual and
cultural life on a scale not seen before. For some eight hundred years Arabic
remained the major intellectual and scientific language of the world. During
the centuries following the rise of Islam, Muslim dynasties ruling in various
parts of the Islamic world bore witness to the flowering of Islamic culture
and thought. In fact this tradition of intellectual activity was eclipsed
only at the beginning of modern times as a result of the weakening of faith
among Muslims combined with external domination. And today this activity has
begun anew in many parts of the Islamic world now that the Muslims have
regained their political independence.
A Brief History of Islam
The Rightly guided CaliphsUpon the death of
the Prophet, Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet and the first adult male to
embrace Islam, became caliph. Abu Bakr ruled for two years to be succeeded by
'Umar who was caliph for a decade and during whose rule Islam spread
extensively east and west conquering the Persian empire, Syria and Egypt. It
was 'Umar who marched on foot at the end of the Muslim army into Jerusalem
and ordered the protection of Christian sites. 'Umar also established the
first public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He
established many of the basic practices of Islamic government.
'Umar was succeeded by 'Uthman who ruled for some twelve years during
which time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph
who had the definitive text of the Noble Quran copied and sent to the four
corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by 'Ali who is known
to this day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also for his bravery.
With his death the rule of the "rightly guided" caliphs, who hold a special
place of respect in the hearts of Muslims, came to an end.
The Caliphate
UmayyadThe Umayyad caliphate established in
661 was to last for about a century. During this time Damascus became the
capital of an Islamic world which stretched from the western borders of China
to southern France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this
period through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind,
Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal
institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were established.
AbbasidsThe Abbasids, who succeeded the
Umayyads, shifted the capital to Baghdad which soon developed into an
incomparable center of learning and culture as well as the administrative and
political heart of a vast world.
They ruled for over 500 years but gradually their power waned and they
remained only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon various sultans and
princes who wielded actual military power. The Abbasid caliphate was finally
abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258, destroying
much of the city including its incomparable libraries.
While the Abbasids ruled in Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such
as the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks held power in Egypt, Syria and
Palestine. The most important event in this area as far as the relation
between Islam and the Western world was concerned was the series of Crusades
declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The purpose,
although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land and especially
Jerusalem for Christianity. Although there was at the beginning some success
and local European rule was set up in parts of Syria and Palestine, Muslims
finally prevailed and in 1187 Saladin, the great Muslim leader, recaptured
Jerusalem and defeated the Crusaders.
North Africa And SpainWhen the Abbasids
captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped and made the long
journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad rule there, thus beginning the
golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba was established as the capital and soon
became Europe's greatest city not only in population but from the point of
view of its cultural and intellectual life. The Umayyads ruled over two
centuries until they weakened and were replaced by local rulers.
Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two
powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa and also
Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area was ruled once
again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of Morocco who still rule in
that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim power continued to wane until the
last Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in 1492 thus bringing nearly
eight hundred years of Muslim rule in Spain to an end.
After the Mangol InvasionThe Mongols
devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the Sinai Desert to
India for a century. But they soon converted to Islam and became known as the
Il-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by Timur and his descendents who made
Samarqand their capital and ruled from 1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur
delayed the formation and expansion of the Ottoman empire but soon the
Ottomans became the dominant power in the Islamic world.
Ottoman EmpireFrom humble origins the Turks
rose to dominate over the whole of Anatolia and even parts of Europe. In 1453
Mehmet the Conqueror captured Constantinople and put an end to the Byzantine
empire. The Ottomans conquered much of eastem Europe and nearly the whole of
the Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania in the West and Yemen, Hadramaut
and parts of the Arabian peninsula remaining beyond their control. They
reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the Magnificent whose armies
reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century onward with the rise of
Westem European powers and later Russia, the power of the Ottomans began to
wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to be reckoned with until the
First World War when they were defeated by the Westem nations. Soon
thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey and abolished the six
centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924.
PersiaWhile the Ottomans were concerned
mostly with the westem front of their empire, to the east in Persia a new
dynasty called the Safavids came to power in 1502. The Safavids established a
powerful state of their own which flourished for over two centuries and
became known for the flowering of the arts. Their capital, Isfahan, became
one of the most beautiful cities with its blue tiled mosques and exquisite
houses. The Afghan invasion of 1736 put an end to Safavid rule and prepared
the independence of Afghanistan which occured fommally in the 19th century.
Persia itself fell into tummoil until Nader Shah, the last Oriental
conqueror, reunited the country and even conquered India. But the rule of the
dynasty established by him was short-lived. The Zand dynasty soon took over
to be overthrown by the Qajars in 1779 who made Tehran their capital and
ruled until 1921 when they were in turn replaced by the Pahlavis.
IndiaAs for India, Islam entered into the
land east of the Indus River peacefully. Gradually Muslims gained political
power beginning in the early 13th century. But this period which marked the
expansion of both Islam and Islamic culture came to an end with the conquest
of much of India in 1526 by Babur, one of the Timurid princes. He established
the powerful Mogul empire which produced such famous rulers as Akbar,
Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted, despite the gradual rise of
British power in India, until 1857 when it was officially abolished.
Malaysia And IndonesiaFarther east in the
Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th century in northem Sumatra and
soon Muslim kingdoms were establishd in Java, Sumatra and mainland Malaysia.
Despite the colonization of the Malay world, Islam spread in that area
covering present day Indonesia, Malaysia, the southern Phililppines and
southern Thailand, and is still continuing in islands farther east.
AfricaAs far as Africa is concemed, Islam
entered into East Africa at the very beginning of the Islamic period but
remained confined to the coast for some time, only the Sudan and Somaliland
becoming gradually both Arabized and Islamized. West Africa felt the presence
of Islam through North African traders who travelled with their camel
caravans south of the Sahara. By the 14th century there were already Muslim
sultanates in such areas as Mali, and Timbuctu in West Africa and Harar in
East Africa had become seats of Islamic leaming.
Gradually Islam penetrated both inland and southward. There also appeared
major charismatic figures who inspired intense resistance against European
domination. The process of the Islamization of Africa did not cease during
the colonial period and continues even today with the result that most
Africans are now Muslims carrying on a tradition which has had practically as
long a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa as Islam itself.
Islam in the United StatesIt is almost
impossible to generalize about American Muslims: converts, immigrants,
factory workers, doctors; all are making their own contribution to America's
future. This complex community is unified by a common faith, underpinned by a
countrywide network of a thousand mosques.
Muslims were early arrivals in North America. By the eighteenth century
there were many thousands of them, working as slaves on plantations. These
early communities, cut off from their heritage and families, inevitably lost
their Islamic identity as time went by. Today many Afro-American Muslims play
an important role in the Islamic community.
The nineteenth century, however, saw the beginnings of an influx of Arab
Muslims, most of whom settled in the major industrial centers where they
worshipped in hired rooms. The early twentieth century witnessed the arrival
of several hundred thousand Muslims from Eastem Europe: the first Albanian
mosque was opened in Maine in 1915; others soon followed, and a group of
Polish Muslims opened a mosque in Brooklyn in 1928.
In 1947 the Washington Islamic Center was founded during the term of
President Truman, and several nationwide organizations were set up in the
fifties. The same period saw the establishment of other communities whose
lives were in many ways modelled after Islam. More recently, numerous members
of these groups have entered the fold of Muslim orthodoxy. Today there are
about five million Muslims in America.
Aftermath of the Colonial PeriodAt the
height of European colonial expansion in the 19th century, most of the
Islamic world was under colonial rule with the exception of a few regions
such as the heart of the Ottoman empire, Persia, Afghanistan, Yemen and
certain parts of Arabia. But even these areas were under foreign influence
or, in the case of the Ottomans, under constant threat. After the First World
War with the breakup of the Ottoman empire, a number of Arab states such as
Iraq became independent, others like Jordan were created as a new entity and
yet others like Palestine, Syria and Lebanon were either mandated or turned
into French colonies. As for Arabia, it was at this time that Saudi Arabia
became finally consolidated. As for other parts of the Islamic world, Egypt
which had been ruled by the descendents of Muhammad Ali since the l9th
century became more independent as a result of the fall of the Ottomans,
Turkey was turned into a secular republic by Ataturk, and the Pahlavi dynasty
began a new chapter in Persia where its name reverted to its eastern
traditional form of Iran. But most of the rest of the Islamic world remained
under colonial rule.
ArabIt was only after the Second World War
and the dismemberment of the British, French, Dutch and Spanish empires that
the rest of the Islamic world gained its independence. In the Arab world,
Syria and Lebanon became independent at the end of the war as did Libya and
the shaykdoms around the Gulf and the Arabian Sea by the 1960's. The North
African countries of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria had to fight a difficult
and, in the case of Algeria, long and protracted war to gain their freedom
which did not come until a decade later for Tunisia and Morocco and two
decades later for Algeria. Only Palestine did not become independent but was
partitioned in 1948 with the establishment of the state of Israel.
IndiaIn India Muslims participated in the
freedom movement against British rule along with Hindus and when independence
finally came in 1947, they were able to create their own homeland, Pakistan,
which came into being for the sake of Islam and became the most populated
Muslim state although many Muslims remained in India. In 1971, however, the
two parts of the state broke up, East Pakistan becoming Bengladesh.
Far EastFarther east still, the Indonesians
finally gained their independence from the Dutch and the Malays theirs from
Britain. At first Singapore was part of Malaysia but it separated in 1963 to
become an independent state. Small colonies still persisted in the area and
continued to seek their independence, the kingdom of Brunei becoming
independent as recently as 1984.
AfricaIn Africa also major countries with
large or majority Muslim populations such as Nigeria, Senegal and Tanzania
began to gain their independence in the 1950's and 1960's with the result
that by the end of the decade of the 60's most parts of the Islamic world
were formed into independent national states. There were, however,
exceptions. The Muslim states in the Soviet Union failed to gain their
autonomy or independence. The same holds true for Sinkiang (called Eastem
Turkestan by Muslim geographers) while in Eritrea and the southern
Philippines Muslim independence movements still continue.
National StatesWhile the world of Islam has
entered into the modern world in the form of national states, continuous
attempts are made to create closer cooperation within the Islamic world as a
whole and to bring about greater unity. This is seen not only in the meetings
of the Muslim heads of state and the establishment of the OIC (Organization
of Islamic Countries) with its own secretariat, but also in the creation of
institutions dealing with the whole of the Islamic world. Among the most
important of these is the Muslim World League (Rabitat al-alam al-Islami )
with its headquarters in Makkah. Saudi Arabia has in fact played a pivotal
role in the creation and maintenance of such organizations.
Revival and Reassertation of IslamMuslims
did not wish to gain only their political independence. They also wished to
assert their own religious and cultural identity. From the 18th century
onward Muslim reformers appeared upon the scene who sought to reassert the
teachings of Islam and to reform society on the basis of Islamic teachings.
One of the first among this group was Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, who hailed
from the Arabian peninsula and died there in 1792. This reformer was
supported by Muhammad ibn al-Sa'ud, the founder of the first Saudi state.
With this support Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was able to spread his
teachings not only in Arabia but even beyond its borders to other Islamic
lands where his reforms continue to wield influence to this day.
In the 19th century lslamic assertion took several different forms ranging
from the Mahdi movement of the Sudan and the Sanusiyyah in North Africa which
fought wars against European colonizers, to educational movements such as
that of Aligarh in India aiming to reeducate Muslims. In Egypt which, because
of al-Azhar University, remains to this day central to Islamic learning, a
number of reformers appear, each addressing some aspect of Islamic thought.
Some were concerned more with law, others economics, and yet others the
challenges posed by Western civilization with its powerful science and
technology. These included Jamal al-Din al-Afghani who hailed originally from
Persia but settled in Cairo and who was the great champion of Pan-Islamism,
that is the movement to unite the Islamic world politically as well as
religiously. His student, Muhammad 'Abduh, who became the rector of al-Azhar.
was also very influential in Islamic theology and thought. Also of
considerable influence was his Syrian student, Rashid Rida, who held a
position closer to that of 'Abd al-Wahhab and stood for the strict
application of the Shari'ah. Among the most famous of these thinkers is
Muhammad Iqbal, the outstanding poet and philosopher who is considered as the
father of Pakistan.
Reform OrganizationsMoreover, as Western
influence began to penetrate more deeply into the fiber of Islamic society,
organizations gradually grew up whose goal was to reform society in practice
along Islamic lines and prevent its secularization. These included the Muslim
Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-muslimin) founded in Egypt and with branches in many
Muslim countries, and the Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan founded by the
influential Mawlana Mawdudi. These organizations have been usually peaceful
and have sought to reestablish an Islamic order through education. During the
last two decades, however, as a result of the frustration of many Muslims in
the face of pressures coming from a secularized outside world, some have
sought to reject the negative aspects of Western thought and culture and to
return to an Islamic society based completely on the application of the Shari
'ah. Today in every Muslim country there are strong movements to preserve and
propagate Islamic teachings. In countries such as Saudi Arabia Islamic Law is
already being applied and in fact is the reason for the prosperity,
development and stability of the country. In other countries where Islamic
Law is not being applied, however, most of the effort of Islamic movements is
spent in making possible the full application of the Shari'ah so that the
nation can enjoy prosperity along with the fulfillment of the faith of its
people. In any case the widespread desire for Muslims to have the religious
law of Islam applied and to reassert their religious values and their own
identity must not be equated with exceptional violent eruptions which do
exist but which are usually treated sensationally and taken out of proportion
by the mass media in the West.
Education and Science in the Islamic
WorldIn seeking to live successfully in the modern world, in
independence and according to Islamic principles, Muslim countries have been
emphasizing a great deal the significance of the role of education and the
importance of mastering Western science and technology. Already in the 19th
century, certain Muslim countries such as Egypt, Ottoman Turkey and Persia
established institutions of higher learning where the modem sciences and
especially medicine were taught. During this century educational institutions
at all levels have proliferated throughout the Islamic world. Nearly every
science ranging from mathematics to biology as well as various fields of
modern technology are taught in these institutions and some notable
scientists have been produced by the Islamic world, men and women who have
often combined education in these institutions with training in the West.
In various parts of the Islamic world there is, however, a sense that
educational institutions must be expanded and also have their standards
improved to the level of the best institutions in the world in various fields
of leaming especially science and technology. At the same time there is an
awareness that the educational system must be based totally on Islamic
principles and the influence of alien cultural and ethical values and norms,
to the extent that they are negative, be diminished. To remedy this problem a
number of international Islamic educational conferences have been held, the
first one in Makkah in 1977, and the foremost thinkers of the Islamic world
have been brought together to study and ponder over the question of the
relation between Islam and modern science. This is an ongoing process which
is at the center of attention in many parts of the Islamic world and which
indicates the significance of educational questions in the Islamic world
today.
Influence of Islamic Science and Learning Upon
the WestThe oldest university in the world which is still functioning is
the eleven hundred-year-old Islamic university of Fez, Morocco, known as the
Qarawiyyin. This old tradition of Islamic learning influenced the West
greatly through Spain. In this land where Muslims, Christians and Jews lived
for the most part peacefully for many centuries, translations began to be
made in the 11th century mostly in Toledo of Islamic works into Latin often
through the intermediary of Jewish scholars most of whom knew Arabic and
often wrote in Arabic. As a result of these translations, Islamic thought and
through it much of Greek thought became known to the West and Western schools
of learning began to flourish. Even the Islamic educational system was
emulated in Europe and to this day the term chair in a university reflects
the Arabic kursi (literally seat) upon which a teacher would sit to teach his
students in the madrasah (school of higher learning). As European
civillization grew and reached the high Middle Ages, there was hardly a field
of learning or form of art, whether it was literature or architecture, where
there was not some influence of Islam present. Islamic learning became in
this way part and parcel of Western civilization even if with the advent of
the Renaissance, the West not only turned against its own medieval past but
also sought to forget the long relation it had had with the Islamic world,
one which was based on intellectual respect despite religious opposition.
ConclusionThe Islamic world remains today a
vast land stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with an important
presence in Europe and America, animated by the teachings of Islam and
seeking to assert its own identity. Despite the presence of nationalism and
various secular ideologies in their midst, Muslims wish to live in the modern
world but without simply imitating blindly the ways followed by the West. The
Islamic world wishes to live at peace with the West as well as the East but
at the same time not to be dominated by them. It wishes to devote its
resources and energies to building a better life for its people on the basis
of the teachings of Islam and not to squander its resources in either
internal or external conflicts. It seeks finally to create better
understanding with the West and to be better understood by the West. The
destinies of the Islamic world and the West cannot be totally separated and
therefore it is only in understanding each other better that they can serve
their own people more successfully and also contribute to a better life for
the whole of humanity.
See Chronology of
Islam - Click here
Source : Barkati Net
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